Raznorazna pitanja

Znači ođe postaviš pitanje na koje bi volio da znaš odgovor, velike su šanse da ćeš dobit' tačan i jebitačan odgovor jer na Vukajliju dolaze studenti, akademici, zidari (ne, nisu masoni) i ostala balafurdija. Prvi ću ja pitanje koje me jebe evo čitav dan: O ribama. Znam da seru, ali kako majku im jebem? Odakle im izlazi? Smrdi li? Može li da se koristi ka' đubrivo? S čim se brišu posle nužde? Zna li iko?

Ево тиједан мој кратак рад на ту тему који сам радио на факсу.
Не виде се ИПА симболи, па нећеш моћи добро да сконташ фонетске разлике, али има описа. Има и неколико грешака, понегде можда и у правопису, јер сам изгубио коначну верзију рада, ово је прва верзија која није преправљана.

American and British English Differences

Contents

Introduction _________________________ 3
Part One: Pronunciation and Stress _____ 3
Part Two: Spelling ____________________ 5
Part Three: Morphology and Syntax _____ 7
Part Four: Vocabulary ________________ 9
Conclusion __________________________ 10
Bibliography ________________________ 11
References __________________________ 12

Introduction

American English is a variety of standard English language, used in the United States of America. Its existence proves that languages evolve differently in different speech communities. It started to diverge from British English as early as from the colonial beginnings in the early 17th century, gradually acquiring regional differences during the settlement of America. The differences between the English language used in the US and in the UK occur on several levels (pronunciation, spelling, lexis, grammar) and sometimes provide considerable variations, but we cannot accurately estimate the number of all points to contrast , since American English vocabulary is increasingly used in the UK (and worldwide), which is additionally boosted in the last decade with the extensive use of the internet. This paper illustrates the major differences between British (BrE) and American English (AmE) in a nutshell.

Part One: Pronunciation and Stress

General American (GA) sounds different from British Received Pronunciation (RP), but the distinctions mentioned below are by no means absolute, given the number of dialect regions in the UK and the US. So far, phonologists have identified 16 modern dialect regions in England only, and 26 in the United States . The following are some of the most prominent differences.

GA is a rhotic accent, unlike RP. Non-rhottic accents prevail in England, while Irish and Scottish are rhotic accents. This is why it is presumed that the non-rhotic accent of eastern New England and New York City origins from the pilgrims who came from the Midlands and East Anglia in 1620, while the colonists that arrived from the West Country, Scotland and Ireland are responsible for the rhotic accent which can be heard in most of the United States.

In standard BrE, r is pronounced only before a vowel in a word, or if the following word begins with a vowel (so-called linking r), e.g. later in time /  / . In the case of intrusive r, it is pronounced even without a corresponding letter in spelling: the idea of / ’•/ . Intrusive r is extremely rare in GA.

American r is pronounced after vowels and consonants, and also at the end of words. For instance, BrE pronunciation for words like forever, more, pure, and work would be //, //, // and //, while in America these would sound /r/, /r/, /r/ and /r/, with the postvocalic r easily distinguishable.

Some words containing stressed a, in UK pronounced with //, are pronounced with // in the US, e.g. banana // → //, laugh // → //, path // → //.

Letter o in such words as not, dog, and hot, is pronounced // or // in BrE (with lips rounded), while in AmE it is more like //.

Letter t in AmE, in non-initial position, is voiced and often pronounced /d/, i.e. //. Sometimes it is almost silent. For instance, what Britons normally pronounce //, //, //, Americans pronounce as /dr/, /dr/, /dr/.

Many loanwords coming from French are stressed on the final syllable in AmE, unlike in BrE, where the stress is earlier , e.g. adult // → //, ballet // → //, garage // → //, vaccine // → // etc.

Some words pronounced with /u/ in AmE, are normally pronounced with /ju/ in BrE. These words usually have u or ew preceded by th, d, t or n, e.g. duty /djut/ → /dut/, tune /tju/ → /tun/, You Tube /ju tjub/ → /ju tub/.

There is a large number of words differently pronounced in BrE and AmE, which do not follow any of the above mentioned rules , e.g. advertisement // → /,/, ate // → // , buoy // → /’/, composite // → //, laboratory // → //, lieutenant // → // , privacy // → //, semi- // → //, schedule // → // , tomato /tt/ → /tt/, vase // → //, vitamin // → //, z // → // etc.

Part Two: Spelling

Modern British spelling rules are to a great extent standardized by Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language, published in 1755, probably one of the most influential dictionaries of English language ever written. However, the way in which Americans spell certain words differs largely from the way Britons spell them, mostly because of Noah Webster, an American lexicographer, also known as the “Father of American Education”, who published An American Dictionary of the English Language in 1828, which contained a large number of altered entries he successfully used to standardize a new way of word writing, thus introducing a spelling reform, created to meet both linguistic and nationalistic necessities. The following passage represents a brief description of such differences.

The vast majority of BrE words that end in an unstressed –our, such as colour, odour, harbour, honour, neighbour, end in –or in the United States: color, odor, harbor, honor, neighbor , even in derivatives (favouritism → favoritism, humourous → humorous). Words ending with an unreduced vowel, such as contour or troubadour (coming from Latin via French) remain unaltered, although there are few words with a reduced vowel that retain British way of spelling, such as glamour. Interestingly, the word honor, as such, can be noticed in The United States Declaration of Independence that had been adopted more than fifty years before Webster’s dictionary was published, but it appears to be a misspelling rather than an intentionally altered word . Worldwide, people usually prefer writing –our, instedad of –or.

Most British words ending in –re (originating from French, Latin or Greek), such as fibre, litre, metre, centre, tend to transform their endings into –er in AmE : fiber, liter, meter, center, although in inflections the BrE spelling is retained: metric, central, fibrous etc. Some BrE words with cognates in modern French, having a –re ending, had been transformed into words with an –re ending much before Webster. Such words are diameter, minister, powder etc.

Americans usually accept only –ize word ending, while Britons accept both –ise and –ize, although the ratio is 3:2 in favour of –ise . Thus, for instance, whereas both popularise and popularize, emphasise and emphasize or vaporise and vaporize are completely acceptable in the UK, in the United States the –ise option is eliminated. On the other hand, most BrE words ending in –yse, such as paralyse, typically end in –yze in AmE. Most digital spellcheckers and word-processing programs are in favour of –ize option (a problem often encountered by the author of this paper), automatically switching all –ise endings into –ize.

The majority of BrE disyllabic verbs ending with l, with the stress on the second syllable are written with a single –l, unlike in AmE, which tolerates both –l and –ll endings (AmE: enrol or enroll, BrE: enrol). However, British English requires doubling of l for all inflections, e.g. -er, -ing, -ed, which is not necessary in AmE: fuelled/fueled, quarrelling/quarreling, traveller/traveler, jewellery/jewelery etc.

Certain BrE words of Greek origin, containing oe or ae, such as anaesthetic, oestrogen and anaemic , are simplified in AmE: anesthetic, estrogen and anemic.

Words of Greek origin which normally end in –ogue in BrE, are simplified to –og in AmE: catalogue/catalog, analogue/analog, dialogue/dialog.

British English usually retains silent e after suffixes are added, unlike AmE. For example, words of BrE like ageing and likeable are normally spelled aging and likable in American English.

British people, mostly under the influence of Oxford dictionaries, seem to be using hyphens more than Americans, who prefer spaces or solid words . Thus, for example, an American would always prefer counterattack option to counter-attack, which is more dominant in the UK. Some words, separated by a space in BrE, are solid words in AmE, such as any more/anymore and for ever/forever.

There is a large number of words that are differently spelled in BrE and AmE, which do not follow any of the above mentioned rules. Generally speaking, the way in which Americans spell certain words appears to be more logical and simplistic. British words like aeroplane, baulk, cheque, arse, disc, doughnut, draught, enquiry , gaol, kerb, liquorice, plough, omelette, programme , pyjamas, reflexion, sulphur, sceptical, tonne , yoghurt, are normally spelled: airplane, balk, check, ass, disk, donut, draft, inquiry, jail, curb, licorice, plow, omelet, program, pajamas, reflection, sulfur, skeptical, ton, yogurt in AmE.

Part Three: Morphology and Syntax

American and British English are remarkably similar in grammar, and yet the influence of AmE over contemporary BrE is constantly increasing through films, TV, popular music, the internet etc., thus making the contrasts even less perceptible. Examples of the main differences are given below.

Irregular verb forms used in AmE and BrE are not completely identical. It can be noted that Americans prefer regular forms to irregular, e.g. they would choose burned, kneeled, leaned, learned, smelled, spelled and spoiled rather than burnt, knelt, leant, learnt, smelt, spelt and spoilt, which are more common forms in the UK. However, while verbs fit, quit and wet are regular in BrE, they are irregular in AmE, having the same infinitive, past tense and past participle form. Furthermore, in AmE, the past participle of get can be either got or gotten, except in have got (=have).

Past Simple and Present Perfect are often interchangeable in AmE, which is not the case in BrE. In America, one can often hear constructions such as: ’’Did you ever go to Europe?’’, ’’I never saw Metallica live.’’ or ’’Did Aronofsky finish his new movie yet?’’ , which are unacceptable in the UK.

Most Americans tend to omit modals from subjunctive constructions, after verbs like demand, insist, suggest, etc.: ’’What album do you suggest I (should) play today?’’

Auxiliary and modal verbs are also differently used in BrE and AmE. While shall and shan’t are regularly used in the UK to replace will and won’t, their use is discouraged in the United States. Britons tend to use can and could with verbs of perception more than Americans, e.g. an American would often say ’’I see a car coming.’’, while a Briton normally says ’’I can see a car coming.’’ .

Putting adverbs such as definitely, never, probably, often, surely etc. before auxiliary verbs in constructions like ’’He probably has arrived by now.’’, has an emphatic function in BrE, while Americans do so even where there is no need to create an emphasis.

Americans, in colloquial speech, tend to use real as an intensifier instead of really, so it is not uncommon for an American to say ’’Čavić swam real fast, but Phelps was faster’’ . Also, sometimes adjectives are used instead of adverbs: ’’Lars plays real(ly) good.’’

Collective nouns like audience, band, company, family, etc. as well as names of countries or organizations, can be combined with either a singular or a plural verb form in BrE, but they usually take plural, e.g. in the headline ’’England Await Chance to Mop Up’’ . In AmE, such nouns usually take verbs in singular, e.g. ’’Microsoft announces important updates for Encarta’’ or ’’The committee meets tomorrow.’’ .

In AmE, the use of some prepositions is different, mostly in adverbial expressions. Note the different use of prepositions in the following sentences:
I’d like you to make me a cup of coffee. / I’d like for you to make me a cup of coffee.
Play it again when you tune up. / Play it over when you tune up.
The concert starts at fifteen to twelve. / The concert starts at fifteen of twelve.
There are a lot of buildings in his street. / There are a lot of buildings on his street.

Part Four: Vocabulary

There is a very large number of words with different meanings in AmE and BrE, and also there are different words in AmE and BrE used to describe the same notion. The creation of a definitive comparative analysis of these two lexes is problematic, due to constant changes, internal regional variations, globalization (worldwide predominance of AmE), and other factors concerning gender, society, age etc. According to D. Crystal, it is often quite impossible to find a proper equivalent of a BrE term in AmE.

Some words having different meanings in BrE and AmE:

apartment (room for special guests / flat), athlete (one who participates in athletics / sportsman), bath (bathtub / bathroom), casket (box for jewellery / coffin), coach (bus / sports teacher), fag (slang term for cigarette / homosexual), highway (public road / road with two roadways with at least four lanes), home (more abstract notion of permanent shelter / house or property), knocked up (very tired / slang for pregnant), lemonade (lemon-flavoured carbonated drink / drink made of squeezed lemons and water), liquor (broth / strong alcoholic drink), mad (mentally ill / angry), mummy (mother / chemically preserved corpse), napkin (diaper / menstrual pad), pants (underpants / trousers), paraffin (kerosene / waxy substance for making candles), pickle (pickled onion / pickled gherkin), purse (feminine wallet / handbag), store (place for storage of items / a shop), trainer (sport shoe / a person who trains), tube (London subway / television), zebra (pedestrian crossing / baseball referee), etc.
Different words in BrE and AmE describing the same idea:

accumulator = battery, aerial = antenna, exhaust pipe = tailpipe, petrol = gasoline/gas, white goods = household appliances, cinema = movies, cashier = teller, ladybird = ladybug, bumper = fender, headmaster = school principal, two-seater = loveseat, football = soccer, sultanas = raisins, ironmongery = hardware store, autumn = fall, lorry = truck, newsagent = newsstand, lift = elevator, tin = can, local authorities = local governments, lucerne = alfalfa, gear lever = gearshift, Chancellor of the Exchequer = Secretary of the Treasury, Foreign Secretary = Secretary of State, Lord Chancellor = Attorney General, mobile phone = cell(ular) phone, mortuary = morgue, seabed = ocean floor, flyover = overpass, property = real estate, plain water = branch water, banknote = bill, notice-board = bulletin board, car park = parking lot, postman = mailman, loft = attic, cutlery = silverware, puncture = flat tire, wireless = radio, press-ups = pushups, tailback = traffic jam, traffic light = stoplight, amber light = yellow light, caravan = trailer, etc.

Conclusion

As we could notice, although AmE and BrE are far from being mutually unintelligible, there are enough instances that may cause confusion and produce considerable misunderstandings - some words that are completely innocuous in one dialect, can be pretty offensive in the other. However, in spite of the various differences in the use of British and American English, these two are alike in most of aspects, so they can by no means be considered as two different languages, but only different forms of the same language. Contemporary mass media have done much to familiarize AmE and BrE speakers with each other's use of English, so that the misunderstandings could be moderated. What's more, modern American English has had a great impact on British English over the last several decades, and it is predicted that the ‘’Americanization’’ of BrE will make all the differences much less noticeable in the following years.

Bibliography:

• Aitchison, James, 2001, Cassell’s Dictionary of English Grammar, London, Cassell & Co.

• Carter, Ronald & McCarthy, Michael, 2006, Cambridge Grammar of English, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

• Crystal, David, 2003, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd Edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

• Darragh, Glenn, 2000, A to Zed, A to Zee: A Guide to the Differences between British and American English, Madrid, Editorial Stanley

• Hlebec, Boris, 2004, A Textbook of English Phonology, 4th Edition, Beograd, Čigoja štampa

• Kovačević, Živorad, 2009, Lažni prijatelji u engleskom jeziku: zamke doslovnog prevođenja, Beograd, Albatros plus

• Kretzchmar, William A. 2008, Article: ’’American English’’, Microsoft Student 2009 DVD, Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation

• Mencken, H.L. 1921, The American Language: An Inquiry into the development of English in the United States, 2nd Edition, New York: A.A. Knopf.
Online Edition: Bartleby.com, 2000. www.bartleby.com/185/

• Moss, Norman, 1984, The British/American Dictionary, London, Hutchinson

• Peters, Pam, 2004, The Cambridge Guide to English Usage, New York, Cambridge University Press

• Pyles, Thomas, 1964, The Origins and Development of the English Language, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.

• Swan, Michael, 2005, Practical English Usage, Third Edition, Oxford University Press

• Wells, J. C, 2003, Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, London, Longman

Zahvaljujem, ide c/p na prezentaciju.
P.S
Imaš pivo od mene ako te vidim ikad. :]

Нема проблема. Слободно копирај, ја се ионако залажем за бесплатно ширење знања. :)

Ovi kod mene u bolnici,dok sam sluzio laznu armiju,to zvali vesernik,ali ne veruejm da je to pravi naziv.

Тај рад. Благодарим! :)

Ma,sacekaj,Dzimbo.Docice neko ko radi u bolnici,pa ce nam obojici reci pravi termin :)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_cutter

Како ми то тачно зовемо? :)

Za prvo evo nepotpunog odgovora sa sajta o kubanskim cigarama i tompusima

Kada se spremate da zapalite cigaru, prvo što treba da uradite je da isečete vrh. Ovo je izuzetno bitan deo pušackog rituala. Rez treba da je čist a odsečena kapica oko 2 mm debljine. Sekač koji ćete upotrebiti pitanje je ličnog ukusa. Najpopularnije su giljotine, male spravice sa jednim ili dva oštra noža, specijalne makazice, V nož i bušac.

A drugo je mustikla,jeb'o te pas :)

Где имају да се купе те муштикле? Ја бих то да фурам.

Bilo u Carice Milice(mozda i dalje ima,ne znam),jedno vreme sa tompusima(pazario sam par puta cigare tamo),a mislim da ima i u jednoj radnji u Cumicevom,malo zavucenoj,prodaju uglavnom Zippo stvari.

Значи, ипак јесте муштикла? Ја сам мислио да је муштикла краћа и функционише искључиво као филтер. :))

Благодарим.

Pa trebalo je da procitas tekst na Wiki do kraja :).Pise ti da je imala prakticnu funkciju filtera,do 60-ih kad je filter za pljugu izmisljen.

Е јебига, мрзело ме. xD

Нисам пушач, ал' кад постанем! Данке шун.

Jel zna neko gde je podforum na Vukajliji u vezi matematike? Sećam se da je Obelix dosta postovao na toj temi i bilo je fora tipa: zamisli broj od 1-3 i bila je neka fora sa kafom i glavom čoveka, koliko sekundi vam treba da pronađete tog čoveka...
Dosta dugo tražim tu temu.

da nije ova
http://vukajlija.com/forum/teme/1002

Jeste!!!!!! Hvala!
Kako si uspeo, ja se cimam sto godina?

Gde ima da se kupe teleskopi (za gledanje u zvezde naravno :=) )?

Uđeš na "izmena profila". sad je tamo

Hvala

Da li na forumu postoji podforum o automobilima ili pak koja tema vezana za njih?

Мислим да има, ал не знам где. Виђао сам нешто.

Ima, laki je napravio, ali je loše prošla

e hvala :) kasnije ću da je listam odoh da gledam engleze

Kako nastaju hemeroidi, kako izgledaju i od čega se sastoje?

HemEroidi nastaju od nezdrave tj puno zacinjene hrane,ne higijenom bolnog mu mesta.

sto ste saranili ovu definiciju coveku?
http://vukajlija.com/gorenje/283650#comment_871850
jer zato sto je to neki plagijat? ili na osnovu skora?
ako je na osnovu skora...onda sve u kurac

http://www.google.me/#hl=en&source=hp&biw=1024&bih=677&q=Generalni+sponzor+pakla&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&fp=27acd1585b1e3db9

Valjda

to je onda ok...posto nisam znao foru..a i niko je nije postovao dole

E ljudi zna li neko za definiciju gde primer ide nekako ovako.
Američki šef treba da otpusti jednog radnika, u igri su crnac , jevrej, žena i sredovečni belac sa ženom i dvoje dece. Uglavnom, svako se izvlači na svoju kartu, dok ne dođe red na belca i onda on kaže "U poslednje vreme se osećam pomalo gej."
Palo mi je skoro na pamet al izgleda da je nisam obeležio(omiljenovao) kod mene.
Fala unapred.

Jel zna neko gde je grafit Vukajlije? :)

http://vukajlija.com/var/uploads/illustrations/200711/2057/vuja.png

http://vukajlija.com/vukajlija/1 na ovu defku...

jel ima neko onaj program koji pamti sve sto radis na kompu, sve sto kuckas i te fore.... navodno je da bi video sta klinci rade dok nisi kuci ili neki program na tu foru

http://www.google.me/#hl=en&source=hp&biw=1024&bih=677&q=record+computer+activity&aq=0&aqi=g3g-m5g-v2&aql=&oq=record+computer+activi&fp=27acd1585b1e3db9

Probaj od ovih nešto da nađeš
eno ono parental software

uh, to je softver mislio sam neki programcic samo da zapamti sifru fejsa nekog ko se loguje na komp :) ako ima neko nesto sto moze da posluzi u te svrhe a da je jednostavno za instalaciju neka stavi link ovde.